Ethnobotanical Uses , Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Pterocarpus marsupium : A Review

Pterocarpus marsupium is an important therapeutic and medicinal plant belonging to family Fabaceae and commonly named as Indian Kino tree, Bijasal, Venga or Vijayasara. It is a huge deciduous plant and widely distributed in the Central, Western and Southern regions of India. Role of P. marsupium is found in Ayurveda, Homeopathic and Unani systems of medicine. It is a decent source of tannins and flavonoids hence, used as influential astringent, anodyne, cooling, regenerating agent and also used for the treatments of leprosy, leucoderma, toothache, fractures, diarrhea, passive hemorrhage, and dysentery, bruises and diabetes. It is also used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, gout, diabetic anemia, indigestion, asthma, cough, discoloration of hair, bronchitis, ophthalmic complications, elephantiasis and erysipelas. Researchers have been stated the presence of several phytoconstituents in P. marsupium and also their pharmacological activities. The current review aimed to define the phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of P. marsupium which will have been help in the researchers for further qualitative research.


INTRODUCTION
Plants are important to human being for his life.Plants are continuously a common source of remedy in the usage of traditional preparations.All plants phyla produce authorized and unauthorized product of therapeutic importance.The antiquity of herbal remedy is as ancient as human society.The treasure of India is stored in the vast natural flora, which has been boon to mankind.2] studies have revealed that the plant contains terpenoids, aurone and isoflavonoids glycosides and associated phenolic compounds, lupenol, epicatechin, β-sitosterol. 10P. marsupium is the very rich sources of flavonoid and polyphenolic compounds. 11[14][15] Characteristics P. marsupium is a large, deciduous plant which can grow up to 30 meters in height. 18Its stem bark is of grey brown color.0] Leaves are large green colored, compound, imparipinnate and having 3-7 inches length, 5-8 leaflets, margin curly and thick.0] Different parts of P. marsupium are shown in Figure 1.Flowers are 1.5 cm long, white with a minor yellow tinge with 10 stamens.Anthers are 2 lobed. 19Pods are brown, glabrous, flat, orbicular, winged like, 3-6 cm in width, usually single seeded and curved convexly.There are almost 1500-2000 pods/kg. 21Seeds are kidney shaped 1 to 1.3 centimeter long, reddish TRADITIONAL USES P. marsupium has been traditionally used in the treatment of leucoderma, elephantiasis, diarrhea, cough, discoloration of hair and rectalgia. 14It is nontoxic and useful in jaundice, fever, wounds, diabetes, stomachache and ulcer (Table 2 and 3). 24
brown, fairly rigid with smooth glossy leathery testa. 21Legume is swallowed on a lengthy, petiole is three, fourths or bicular, the upper remains, which spreads from pedicel to the rest of style is straight, the entire covered with a downy, waved, veiny, layered wing, enlarged, woody center and where seed is blocked and not opening. 20igin, distribution and habitat  Antimicrobial. [36] Furan-2-one,3,4-dihydroxy-5-[1-hydroxy-2-fluoroethyl] Antiviral.

CNS activity
(-)-Epicatechin was separated from the bark and it was established for its action on CNS of rats, mice and frog.It was examined that (-)-epicatechin don't have any effect on CNS of rats, mice and frog.(-)-Epicatechin had been showing positive chronotropic and inotropic effects on the heart of frog and propranolol use to block this effect.Hyperglycemia is produced in rats at higher doses (200 and 500 mg/kg b. wt.) of this compound and this effect is also prevented by propranolol indicating adrenergic activity. 53

Antihyperlipidemic activity
Effect of combination therapy with methanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves and P. marsupium heart wood was studied on non-diabetic and oxidative stressed alloxan induced diabetic Wistar rats (female).] Ethanolic wood and bark extracts of P. marsupium (150+150 mg/kg b.wt.) significantly decreased blood glucose and lipid in albino Wistar rats where diabetes was induced by giving alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg, i.p) for 14 days. 32,37tioxidant activity Ethanol, isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and acetone stem wood extracts of P. marsupium showed antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging method. 45Methanolic extract (100 µg/ml) is achieved to have maximum 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging effect followed by ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts.The scavenging effect achieved saturation with further increase in concentration of extracts.This study had showed significant antioxidant activity of P. marsupium bark extract in DPPH, superoxide, ABTS, hydroxyl radical, nitric oxide scavenging and suppression of in vitro lipid peroxidation. 56he in vitro antioxidant activity of ethyl acetate leaf extract of P. marsupium was studied by using DPPH assay, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, ABTS assay, FRAP assay, NO radical scavenging activity, TRAP assay, reducing power assay and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) radical scavenging activity.The leaf extract has showed higher scavenging activity i.e. 71% in FRAP assay at a concentration of 100 μg/ml.This study showed that the ethyl acetate leaf extract of P. marsupium have free radical scavenging activity. 57xtract prolonged the cardiac arrest time by 14 min when compared with the control in oxidative stress model where it was induced by 1mM of H 2 O 2 and cardiac arrest was the end point.It was found that P. marsupium extract had significant antioxidant activity in isolated frog heart. 58he alcoholic extract of P. marsupium of varying concentrations showed inhibitory effect as evident by IC 50 of 55.39 µg/ml, 195.88 µg/ml, 151.00 µg/ml on advanced glycation end products formation, rat kidney aldose reductase and sorbitol accumulation respectively.This research

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lococcus aureus and Bacillus cereu) but did not show antibacterial activity against Gram +ve bacteria (Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhi).Ethanol extract of P. marsupium (50 mg/ml) did not show any antibacterial activity. 45

Anti-inflammatory activity
Methanolic and aqueous extract evaluated anti-inflammatory effect by acute inflammation model using carrageenan induced rat paw edema method.Methanol extract at dose 50 mg/kg b. wt. and aqueous extract at dose 100 mg/kg b.wt.indicated significant decrease in paw edema.] P. marsupium aqueous extract at doses of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg b.wt was found to decrease the elevated inflammatory cytokine, TNF-α level in NIDDM diabetic rats. 69xicity study Acute toxicity test was performed in mice.For this aqueous extracts of P. marsupium bark was administrated orally at single dose of 2.5-12.5 g/kg and examined upto 7 days for general behavior and mortality.The no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) and lowest-observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) were 5.0 g/kg, 7.5 mg/kg b.wt respectively.Mortality was increased with the dose (LD50>10.75g/kg b. wt) for the mouse.The sub-chronic toxicity test was performed in rats.For this extract was administered daily 150-600 mg/kg b.wt for 42 days which did not show death or significant changes in biochemical parameters.At the dose of 600 mg/kg b.wtonly increased hepatic catalase activity.No alteration was found in food and water intake and body weight.

Nootropic activity
Methanolic extract of P. marsupium (25 and 50 mg/kg p.o.) were administered in adult albino Swiss mice for neurotoxicity test for learning and memory.P. marsupium improved scopolamine induced amnesia with evidence increasing inflexion ratio and reduces transfer latency and improves the impairment of spatial memory induced by scopolamine as indicated by formation of reference and working memories. 72

Antiulcer activity
Methanolic heartwood extract of P. marsupium (750 mg/kg b.wt) lowers the blood glucose level in both normal rats and NIDDM rats.It saved the mucosa by influencing the increase in mucosal offensive (LPO and NO) factors and decrease in defensive factors (superoxide dismutase and catalase).

Cardiotonic activity
Aqueous heartwood extract of P. marsupium shows cardiotonic activity using isolated frog heart perfusion.At a very low concentration (0.25 mg/ml), a considerable rise in force of contraction and reduced heart rate as compared to standard digoxin.At higher dose (4 mg/ml) cardiac arrest occurred.The result showed that P. marsupium significantly increases contraction force of heart. 13X-2 Inhibition P. marsupium extract evaluated for selective cyclo-oxygenase (COX-2) inhibitory action due to presence of pterostilbene.In a whole blood assay method, it is revealed that the dose of P. marsupium (450 mg/kg b.wt) did not reduce PGE2 production.During the study, no changes were observed from the base line of the safety parameters and no extract associated adverse effects occurred.15 suggests that the photo extract exhibited promising role in decreasing/ delaying diabetic complications.59

Hepatoprotective activity
Histology and liver biomarkers (serum protein, total bilirubin, alanine amino transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate amino transaminase) results shown that methanol and aqueous stem bark extracts (25 m/kg per day per oral for 14 days) possesses significant hepatoprotective effect in carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ) induced hepatotoxicity model. 14evels of the enzymes (lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase and bilirubin) were considerably reduced in the group treated with plant extracts (100 mg/kg b.wt orally) in CCl 4 induced hepatotoxicity model.The investigation suggested that plant was having good protecting effect on CCl 4 induced hepatotoxicity. 60

Antidiarrheal activity
Ethanolic extract of P. marsupium heartwood (250 and 500 mg/kg b.wt.) significantly decreased the severity and frequency of charcoal and castor oil induced gastrointestina motility or diarrhea confirming the strength of traditional use of this plant as the modality for diarrhea. 61

Anticancer activity
Anticancer activity of pterostilbene, a constituent of plant of P. marsupium was evaluated in A-375, HCT-116, Hep-G2, MDAMB-231 and PC-3 cell lines by measuring cell viability after treatment with pterostilbene (1, 10, 50 and 100 μg/ml).The IC 50 of each cell line were 16.0 μM (Hep-G2), 40.6 μM (MDA-MB-231), 45.3 μM (HCT-116), 421 μM (A-375), 3.9 mM (PC-3).This study showed that pterostilbene high activity against Hep-G2 (liver) and HCT-116 (colon) cancers and it was not active in PC-3. 62ffects of pterostilbene, an active constituent of P. marsupium, on cell viability in human gastric carcinoma AGS cells were investigated.It was found that pterostilbene was able to inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in a concentration and time dependent manner.Pterostilbene induced apoptosis in AGS cells through activating the caspase cascade via the mitochondrial and Fas/FasL pathway, GADD expression and by modifying cell cycle progress and changes in several cycle-regulating proteins.Antitumor effect of pterostilbene was proved by induction of apoptosis. 63

Antimicrobial activity
Antimicrobial activity of aqueous and methanolic bark extracts of P. marsupium was evaluated by using disc diffusion method.It showed the zone of inhibition ranges from 11-22 mm for different extracts.
Methanol extract showed significant effect by preventing A. niger at 25 µg/ml and E. faecalis, S. typhi at 12.5 µg/ml.It was found that P. marsupium showed significant antimicrobial action against microbes. 64ntimicrobial activity of ethanolic extract of P. marsupium against Candida albicans, Vibrio cholera and Bacillus polymyxa was evaluated by using cyclic voltammetry.The low anodic current and low anodic peak potential was obtained showing the good decreasing ability of the molecules resulting in good antioxidant potential of the extract.The result showed the significant antimicrobial effect at different dosages. 65

Antibacterial activity
Methanolic extract of P. marsupium stem was tested by using paper disc diffusion method against gram +ve bacteria Bacillus coagulans and gram +ve bacteria Escherichia coli. 100 mg/ml concentration significantly inhibited growth of both the bacteria. 66he acetone and isopropyl alcohol extract of P. marsupium (50 mg/ml) showed the antibacterial activity against the Gram +ve bacteria (Staphy-can be evaluated to discover the lead molecules in the examination of new herbal drugs.

Analgesic activity
The ethyl acetate, petroleum ether and methanol leaf extracts of P. marsupium were evaluated for analgesic activity in Swiss albino mice.Improvement in writhing response of different extract was compared.
The methanolic extract at the doses of 120 mg/kg b.wt was more effective than ethyl acetate and petroleum ether extracts. 75entral analgesic effects of P. marsupium bark extract was evaluated in mice by using hot plate method.P. marsupium bark extract at dose of 500 mg/ml significantly improved reaction time as compared to standard. 76

Anticataract activity
Aqueous bark extract of P. marsupium (1 g/kg/day), alcoholic seeds extract of Trigonella foenum graecum (2 g/kg/day) and leaf extract of Ocimum sanctum (200 mg/kg/day) were analyzed in growth of cataract in diabetic rats.

Genotoxic assessment
It was studied that stem bark extract of P. marsupium administered to mice for longer period of time did not show any genotoxic activity. 79

Aphrodisiac activity
It was stated the utility of P. marsupium as Vajikaran Rasayana of Ayurveda or Aphrodisiac of New concept. 80

Antifungal activity
A study was carried for 10 days in which after 7 and 10 days of therapy 78% and 93% excellent to good response was found from the alcoholic extract compared to 73% from the aqueous extract.Thus, it shows that the ointment prepared from alcoholic extract is more effective than aqueous extract.There was no side effect after continuous uses of drug for 10 days. 81

Anthelmintic activity
The anthelmintic effect of ethyl acetate, ethanol, n-butanol and petroleum ether leaves extract of P. marsupium was analyzed by using Indian earthworms as trial worm.Different concentrations of different extracts were tested to determine paralysis and death time of the worm.Albendazole (10 mg/ml) was used as standard drug.The outcome of this study shown that between all the extract, petroleum ether and ethanol exhibited significant anthelminitic activity as related to reference drug albendazole. 82

CONCLUSION
Pharmacologically reported various activities of P. marsupium includes antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antidiarrhoeal, anticancer, analgesic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, cardiotonic, antiulcer and several other activities.Very few examinations have been carried out involving the anticataract, nootropic activity, antifungal, aphrodisiac and anthelmintic activities.Through various phytochemicals were isolated, it helps to achieve its therapeutic value and plays a significant role in modern system of remedy and it requires supplementary exploitation.It is vital to recognize the active components and their molecular interaction, which will help to examine therapeutic value of the product and also homogenize the product.The most significant bioactive components were saponins, terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids and phenolic compounds.The current review elaborated the pharmacological studies, phytochemical studies and ethnobotanical uses of P. marsupium and isolated chief phytoconstituents from them, which