@article {1899, title = {The Interactive Antimicrobial Activities of Selected South African Terminalia spp. Extracts in Combination with Conventional Antibiotics against Gastrointestinal Pathogens}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {14}, year = {2022}, month = {December 2022}, pages = {692-701}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {692}, abstract = {

Background: Recent declines in new antibiotic discovery and the increase in antibiotic resistance have resulted in failing against bacterial pathogens. To develop novel antibiotic therapies, medical researchers have begun to focus on traditional therapies. Combinational therapies consisting of medicinal plants and conventional antibiotics may reactivate current drugs that are otherwise ineffective against antibioticresistant bacteria. Terminalia sericea Burch. Ex DC, Terminalia prunioides Laws. and Terminalia gazensis Bak. f. are native South African plants with antimicrobial properties. However, combinations of Terminalia sericea, Terminalia prunioides and Terminalia gazensis with conventional antibiotics are yet to be evaluated for growth inhibitory activity against gastrointestinal pathogens. Methods: Terminalia spp. leaves were extracted with solvents of varying polarity. Antimicrobial screening was performed using disc diffusion and broth microdilution assays. Toxicity was measured using Artemia franciscana nauplii lethality assays. Results: All extracts (except the T. sericea extracts) showed low to moderate inhibitory activity against B. cereus and E. faecalis, A. faecalis, A. hydrophilia, S. sonnei and S. newport in both the disc diffusion and liquid dilution assay. Twenty-three extract/antibiotic combinations produced synergy, 26 were additive, 24 were non-interactive and seven were antagonistic. Most of the antagonist interactions occurred in combinations containing gentamicin. All extracts were either non-toxic or of low toxicity in the Artemia bioassay. Conclusion: Terminalia spp. extracts may mimic the actions of a resistance modifying agents, enhancing the activity of several antibiotics that are relatively ineffective alone. Further studies are required to identify the bioactive and potentiating components and their mechanisms of action.

}, keywords = {Antibiotic potentiation, Antibiotic-resistant pathogens, Combretaceae, Diarrhoea., Synergy, Terminalia gazensis, Terminalia prunioides}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2022.14.156}, author = {Muhammad Jawad Yousaf Zai and Matthew James Cheesman and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {828, title = {The Interactive Antimicrobial Activity of Conventional Antibiotics and Petalostigma spp. Extracts Against Bacterial Triggers of some Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {11}, year = {2019}, month = {March 2019}, pages = {292-309}, type = {Research Article}, chapter = {292}, abstract = {

Introduction: An increase in antibiotic resistance and a corresponding decrease in antimicrobial discovery have directed researchers towards alternative therapies, including plant-based medicines. However, synergistic combinations of plant extracts with conventional antibiotics are a far more effective approach in overcoming resistance and potentiating the activity of antibiotics that are otherwise ineffective against resistant bacterial strains. Methods: In this study, Petalostigma spp. (native Australian medicinal plants) extracts were combined with a range of conventional antibiotics and tested against various microbial triggers of autoimmune diseases. The fruit and leaves were extracted separately with solvents of varying polarity and investigated for the ability to inhibit bacterial growth using disc diffusion and liquid dilution MIC techniques. Results: The methanolic and water extracts showed low to moderate inhibitory activity against several microbes. However, combinations of the mid-low polarity extracts with conventional antibiotics proved significantly more effective in inhibiting the growth of Proteus mirabilis and Acinetobacter baylyi (bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis respectively). In total, 14 different combinations proved to be synergistic. Notably, two antibiotics (chloramphenicol and erythromycin) with no inhibitory activity against P. mirabilis alone were shown to have substantial activity when tested in combination with Petalostigma spp. extracts. Conclusion: Although the mechanisms of synergy are still unclear, studies indicate that compounds within Petalostigma spp. may mimic the actions of resistance modifying agents, thus potentiating the activity of several antibiotics that are relatively ineffective alone. Isolation of these agents may be highly beneficial in drug design against several bacteria including the microbial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.

}, keywords = {ankylosing spondylitis, Conventional antimicrobials, Drug combinations, Efflux pump inhibitor, Interaction, Medicinal plants, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Synergy}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2019.11.45}, author = {Aishwarya Ilanko and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {614, title = {An Interactive Antimicrobial Activity of Embelica officinalis Gaertn. Fruit Extracts and Conventional Antibiotics against Some Bacterial Triggers of Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {10}, year = {2018}, month = {June 2018}, pages = {654-662}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {654}, abstract = {

Background: Embelica officinalis Gaertn. is an Indian plant which is known for its therapeutic properties. It is especially well known as a component of the Ayuverdic medicine Triphala. This study focuses on the growth inhibitory activity of E. officinalis fruit extracts against some bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases, both alone and in combination with conventional antibiotics. Methods: E. officinalis fruit powder was extracted with solvents of varying polarity and screened for bacterial growth inhibition by disc diffusion assay. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was quantified by both liquid dilution and disc diffusion techniques. To screen for combinatorial effects, the E. officinalis fruit extracts were combined with a range of conventional antibiotics and tested against each bacteria using a liquid dilution assay. Toxicity was examined using Artemia nauplii and HDF bioassays. Results: The ethyl acetate E. officinalis fruit extract displayed the strongest growth inhibitory activity against all of the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory disease. This extract was a particularly potent inhibitor of P. aeruginosa growth, with an MIC values as low as 264 \μg/mL. The ethyl acetate extract was also a moderate to strong growth inhibitor of P. mirabilis, K. pneumonia and A. baylyi, with MIC values generally 1000-1500 \μg/mL. The methanolic and aqueous extracts also inhibited the growth of all bacteria, although generally with only moderate to low activity. Whilst no synergistic interactions were detected in combinations containing the E. officinalis fruit extracts and conventional antibiotics, a number of combinations produced additive effects. These combinations are beneficial as they provide enhanced antibacterial efficacy compared to treatment with the antibiotic or extract components alone. No antagonistic interactions were detected. Therefore, use of the extracts in combination with conventional antibiotics would not compromise the antibiotics efficacy. All extracts were nontoxic in the Artemia nauplii and HDF toxicity assays, further indicating their potential for medicinal use. Conclusion: The E. officinalis fruit extracts were moderate inhibitors of the bacterial triggers of selected autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, the extracts potentiated the activity of chloramphenicol and tetracycline against otherwise resistant bacterial strains. Isolation of the active compounds and the potentiating agents may be beneficial in antibiotic drug design.

}, keywords = {Amla, ankylosing spondylitis, Combinational therapies, Indian gooseberry, Multi-drug resistant bacteria, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Synergy}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2018.4.108}, url = {http://fulltxt.org/article/646}, author = {Adrian Hutchings and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {351, title = {An examination of the Antimicrobial and Anticancer Properties of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. Bark Extracts}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {9}, year = {2017}, month = {May 2017}, pages = {504-518}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {504}, abstract = {

Background: Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. is a common component of the pharmacopeia\’s of multiple African groupings which inhabit the areas in which it grows. Amongst these groups there is a myriad of medicinal uses in the treatment of a wide variety of bacterial, fungal and protozoal infections, as well as in the treatment of cancers. This study was undertaken to test K. senegalensis bark extracts for the ability to inhibit microbial and cancer cell growth, and thus to validate traditional African medicinal usage of this plant in treating a variety of diseases. Materials and Methods: K. senegalensis bark powder was extracted by both solvent maceration and subcritical fluid extraction (SFE). The extracts were tested for the ability to inhibit bacterial and G. duodenalis growth. Inhibition of Caco-2 and HeLa cancer cells was evaluated using MTS-based colorimetric cell proliferation assays. Toxicity was evaluated using an Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay and GC-MS headspace analysis was used to identify phytochemical components. Results: K. senegalensis bark extracts displayed strong inhibitory activity against bacterial triggers of several autoimmune inflammatory diseases. The growth inhibitory activity of the methanolic and subcritical extracts was particularly noteworthy against P. mirabilis (MIC values of 185 and 211\μg/mL, respectively against the reference strains). These extracts were similarly potent growth inhibitors of K. pneumoniae and A. baylyi\ and were moderate inhibitors (MIC \>1000\μg/mL) of P. aeruginosa and S. pyogenes growth. The methanolic and subcritical K. senegalensis extracts were also potent inhibitors of G. duodenalis (187 and 328\μg/mL, respectively), as well as Caco-2 (268 and 470\μg/mL, respectively) and HeLa carcinomas (155 and 174\μg/mL, respectively). GC-MS analysis of the SFE extract revealed relative abundances of a variety of mono- and sesquiterpenoids. Furthermore, all K. senegalensis bark extracts were non-toxic in the Artemia franciscana toxicity assay, indicating their safety for therapeutic use. Conclusion: These studies validate traditional African therapeutic usage of K. senegalensis in the treatment of microbial infections, autoimmune inflammatory diseases and some cancers.

}, keywords = {African mahogany, Anti bacterial activity, Anti-cancer activity, Anti-proliferative activity, Giardia duodenalis, Meliaceae, Sub-critical fluid extraction, Terpenoid.}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2017.4.82}, url = {/files/PJ-9-4/10.5530pj.2017.4.82}, author = {Camille Rabadeaux and Lou Vallette and Joseph Sirdaarta and Craig Davis and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {371, title = {GC-MS analysis of Tasmannia lanceolata Extracts which Inhibit the Growth of the Pathogenic Bacterium Clostridium perfringens}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {9}, year = {2017}, month = {July 2017}, pages = {626-637}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {626}, abstract = {

Introduction: Clostridium perfringens is the etiological agent of clostridial myonecrosis and enteritis necroticans. Infections result in exotoxin production, tissue necrosis and unless promptly treated, often result in death. Methods: Tasmannia lanceolata extracts were investigated for C. perfringens growth inhibitory activity by disc diffusion analysis and MIC determination. Toxicity was evaluated by Artemia nauplii bioassay and the most potent extracts were phytochemically evaluated by GC-MS headspace analysis. Results: All T. lanceolata berry and leaf extracts displayed potent C. perfringens growth inhibition. The berry extracts were more potent growth inhibitors than the corresponding leaf extracts, although the leaf extracts were also potent growth inhibitors. The berry aqueous, methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts were particularly potent growth inhibitors, with MIC values of 654, 65 and 329 \μg/mL respectively. T. lanceolata leaf also displayed good efficacy, with an MIC of 839, 1255 and 625 \μg/mL for the aqueous, methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts respectively. All extracts were nontoxic in the Artemia franciscana bioassay, with LC50 values substantially \> 1000 \μg/mL. Non-biased GC-MS analysis of the aqueous, methanolic and ethyl acetate berry extracts revealed the presence of high relative levels of a diversity of terpenoids. Conclusions: The lack of toxicity of the T. lanceolata extracts and their potent growth inhibitory bioactivity against C. perfringens indicates their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of clostridial myonecrosis and enteritis necroticans. GC-MS metabolomic profiling studies indicate that these extracts contained a diversity of terpenoids, with monoterpenoids being particularly abundant.

}, keywords = {Enteritis necroticans, Gas gangrene, Myonecrosis, Tasmannia Lanceolata, Winteraceae}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2017.5.100}, url = {/files/pj-9-5/10.5530pj.2017.5.100/index.html}, author = {Mitchell Henry Wright and Cameron Jay Lee and Megan Sarah Jean Arnold and Joseph Shalom and Alan White and Anthony Carlson Greene and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {230, title = {GC-MS headspace analysis of Terminalia ferdinandiana fruit and leaf extracts which inhibit Bacillus anthracis growth}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {9}, year = {2017}, month = {December 2016}, pages = {73-82}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {73}, abstract = {

Background: Terminalia ferdinandiana (Kakadu plum) is an endemic Australian plant with an extremely high antioxidant capacity. The fruit has long been used by the first Australians as a nutritional food and as a medicine and recent studies have reported its potent growth inhibitory activity against a broad panel of bacteria. Despite this, T. ferdinandiana extracts are yet to be tested for the ability to inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. Materials and Methods: Solvent extracts were prepared using both the fruit and leaf of Kakadu plum. The ability to inhibit the growth of B. anthracis was investigated using a disc diffusion assay. Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. The most potent extracts were investigated using non-targeted GC-MS head space analysis (with screening against a compound database) for the identification and characterisation of individual components in the crude plant extracts. Results: Solvent extractions of T. ferdinandiana fruit and leaf displayed good growth inhibitory activity in the disc diffusion assay against B. anthracis. Fruit ethyl acetate and methanolic leaf extracts were particularly potent growth inhibitors, with MIC values of 451 and 377\μg/mL respectively. The fruit methanolic and chloroform extracts, as well as the aqueous leaf extracts also were good inhibitors of B. anthracis growth, albeit with lower efficacy (MIC values of 1800 and 1414 \μg/mL respectively).The aqueous fruit extract and leaf chloroform extracts had only low inhibitory activity. All other extracts were completely devoid of growth inhibitory activity. Furthermore, all of the extracts with growth inhibitory activity were nontoxic in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay, with LC50 values \>1000 \μg/mL. Non-biased GC-MS phytochemical analysis of the most active extracts (fruit ethyl acetate and methanolic leaf) putatively identified and highlighted several compounds that may contribute to the ability of these extracts to inhibit the growth of B. anthracis. Conclusions: The low toxicity of the T. ferdinandiana fruit ethyl acetate and methanolic leaf extracts, as well as their potent growth inhibitory bioactivity against B. anthracis, indicates their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of anthrax.

}, keywords = {Anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, Combretastatin, Kakadu plum, Metabolomics., stilbene, Tannin, Zoonotic}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2017.1.14}, author = {Mitchell Henry Wright and Joseph Sirdaarta and Alan White and Anthony Carlson Greene and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {149, title = {Bacillus anthracis growth Inhibitory Properties of Australian Terminalia spp.: Putative Identification of low Polarity Volatile Components by GC-MS Headspace Analysis}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {Jan/2016}, pages = {281-290}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {281}, abstract = {

Introduction: Anthrax is a severe acute disease caused by Bacillus anthracis infections. If untreated, it often results in mortality. Many Terminalia spp. have documented therapeutic properties as general antiseptics, inhibiting the growth of a wide variety of bacterial species. This study examines the ability of selected Australian Terminalia spp. extracts to inhibit B. anthracis growth. Methods:\ Solvent extracts were prepared from Terminalia carpentariae and Terminalia grandiflora plant material and investigated by disc diffusion assay for the ability to inhibit the growth of an environmental strain of B. anthracis. Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. The most potent extracts were analysed by GC-MS headspace analysis. Results: T. carpentariae and T. grandiflora leaf, fruit and nut solvent extractions displayed good growth inhibitory activity against B. anthracis. Methanolic T. Carpentariae leaf and T. grandiflora nut extracts were particularly potent growth inhibitors, with MIC values of 74 and 155 \µg/mL respectively. The T. carpentariae leaf ethyl acetate extract was also a good inhibitor of B. anthracis growth (MIC 340 \µg/mL). All other extracts were substantially less potent growth inhibitors. Interestingly, the T. Carpentariae leaf extracts with growth inhibitory activity were nontoxic in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay, with LC50 values \>1000 \µg/mL. In contrast, the LC50 value 740 \µg/mL reported for the methanolic T. grandiflora nut extract indicates low-moderate toxicity. Non-biased GC-MS phytochemical analysis of the most active extracts (methanolic T. carpentariae leaf and T. grandiflora nut) putatively identified and highlighted several compounds that may contribute to the ability of these extracts to inhibit the growth of B. anthracis. Conclusions: The growth inhibitory activity of the methanolic T. Carpentariae leaf and T. grandiflora nutextracts against B. anthracis indicates their potential for the treatment and prevention of anthrax. Furthermore, thelack toxicity of the T. Carpentariae leaf and the low-moderate toxicity of the T. grandiflora nut extract, indicates that their use may extend to all forms of the disease (cutaneous, inhalation or gastrointestinal).

}, keywords = {Anthrax, Combretaceae, Metabolomic profiling., Native almond, Terminalia carpentariae, Terminalia grandiflora, Wild peach}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.3.18}, author = {Mitchell Henry Wright and Joseph Sirdaarta and Alan White and Anthony Carlson Greene and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {162, title = {Cakile maritima Scop. extracts inhibit the growth of some bacterial triggers of autoimmune diseases: GC-MS analysis of an inhibitory extract}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {June/2016}, pages = {361-374}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {361}, abstract = {

Introduction: High antioxidant capacities have been linked to the treatment of rheumatic diseases and also in the inhibition of microbial growth. Although Cakile maritima has a high antioxidant capacity, it is yet to be tested for the ability to inhibit the growth of the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: C. maritima solvent extracts were analysed for antioxidant capacity by the DPPH free radical scavenging assay. Growth inhibitory activities against bacterial species associated with initiating rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis were determined by disc diffusion assay and quantified by MIC determination. Toxicity was determined by Artemia franciscana bioassay. Results: All C. maritima solvent extracts displayed good DPPH radical scavenging activity, although the ethyl acetate extract was particularly potent with an IC50 values of 3.4 \μg/mL. The other extracts also had significant radical scavenging activity, with IC50 between 4.7 and 13.6 \μg/mL. The bacterial growth inhibitory activity of the extracts correlated with their free radical scavenging activity. The ethyl acetate extract displayed the most potent growth inhibitory activity against most bacterial species. This extract was particularly potent against Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC values of 431, 559 and 777 \μg/mL, respectively). The hexane extract was also a potent inhibitor of the Proteus spp., (MIC of approximately 500-800 \μg/mL). The ethyl acetate extract also inhibited Klebsiella pneumoniae growth, albeit with higher MIC\’s (approximately 1500 \μg/mL). All other C. maritima extract-bacteria combinations generally resulted in mid-low potency inhibition. All of the extracts were determined to be nontoxicin with the Artemia franciscana bioassay, with LC50 values substantially \>1000 \μg/mL. A total of 97 unique mass signals were detected in the C. maritima ethyl acetate extract by nonbiased GC-MS headspace analysis. A number of terpenoids which may contribute to the therapeutic bioactivities of the extract were putatively identified. Conclusion: The lack of toxicity and the inhibitory activity against microbial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis by the C. maritima ethyl acetate extract indicates its potential in the treatment and prevention of these diseases.

}, keywords = {Acinitobacter baylyi, ankylosing spondylitis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, multiple sclerosis, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas areuginosa., rheumatoid arthritis}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.4.9}, author = {Elsayed Omer and Abdelsamed Elshamy and Abdel Nasser El Gendy and Xin Cai and Joseph Sirdaarta and Alan White and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {206, title = {Duboisia leichhardtii (F.Muell.) Extracts Inhibit The Growth of Bacterial Triggers of Selected Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {September 2016}, pages = {542-550}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {542}, abstract = {

Introduction: Duboisia leichhardtii F.Muell. is a medium to large tree which is native to subtropical regions of eastern Australia. Duboisia spp. contain a number of psychoactive tropane and pyrrolidine alkaloids with reported antibacterial activity. Despite this, D. leichhardtii leaf extracts have not been rigorously examined for growth inhibitory properties against many bacteria, including the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: The antimicrobial activity of D. leichhardtii leaf solvent extracts was investigated by disc diffusion and growth time course assays against a panel of bacterial triggers of autoimmune diseases. The growth inhibitory activity was further quantified by MIC determination and growth time course assays. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Results: Methanolic and aqueous D. leichhardtii leaf solvent extracts were potent inhibitors of the bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. The methanolic extract displayed the most potent bacterial growth inhibitory activity. It was particularly potent against P. mirabilis (MICs of 85 and 116 g/mL against reference and clinical strains respectively) and P. vulgaris (MIC of 187 g/mL). The methanolic extract was also a good inhibitor of K. pneumoniae growth (MICs of 143 and 118 g/mL against reference and clinical strains respectively). The aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts were also potent bacterial growth inhibitors, albeit with higher MIC values. The antibacterial activity of the methanolic and aqueous D. leichhardtii leaf extracts were further investigated by growth time course assays which showed significant growth inhibition in cultures of P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae within 1 h of exposure. All extracts were determined to be nontoxic in the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay, indicating their safety for use in preventing these autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Conclusions: The lack of toxicity of the D. leichhardtii leaf extracts and their growth inhibitory bioactivity against the bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis indicate their potential in the development of new therapies targeting the onset of these diseases.

}, keywords = {ankylosing spondylitis, Corkwood, Hyoscyamine., multiple sclerosis, Rheumatic Heart Disease, rheumatoid arthritis, Scopolamine, Solanaceae}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.6.5}, author = {Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {136, title = {GC-MS Analysis of Commiphora molmol Oleo-Resin Extracts which Inhibit the growth of Bacterial Triggers of Selected Autoimmune Diseases.}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {January 2016}, pages = {191-202}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {191}, abstract = {

Introduction: Myrrh has been used traditionally for the inhibition of microbial growth and for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Despite this, myrrh extracts are yet to be tested for the ability to inhibit the growth of the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: Solvent extracts prepared from commercially obtained myrrh resin were analysed for the ability to inhibit the growth of bacterial species associated with initiating rheumatoid arthritis (P. mirabilis), ankylosing spondylitis (K. pneumoniae) and multiple sclerosis (A. baylyi, P. aeruginosa) by disc diffusion assay, and quantified by MIC determination. Toxicity was determined by Artemia franciscana bioassay. The most potent inhibitory extract was investigated using non-targeted GC-MS head space analysis (with screening against a compound database) for the identification and characterization of individual components in the crude plant extracts. Results:\ Methanolic myrrh extract inhibited the growth of all bacterial species tested. The growth inhibition of this extract was particularly notable against P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae, with MIC values substantially \< 1000 \μg/mL for both reference and clinical bacterial strains. Indeed, the MIC values of the methanolic extract against P. mirabilis reference and clinical strains were 572 and 463 \μg/mL respectively. The methanolic extract also inhibited the growth of A. baylyi (MIC approximately 3000 \μg/mL) and P. aeruginosa (MIC approximately 1800 \μg/mL). However, the MICs against these bacteria was indicative of only moderate inhibitory activity. The aqueous, ethyl acetate, chloroform and hexane extracts also inhibited the growth of all bacterial species, albeit with moderate (MIC values 1000-5000 \μg/mL) to low efficacy (MIC values \>5000 \μg/mL) against all bacterial species. All myrrh extracts were non-toxicin the Artemia franciscana bioassay, with LC50 values substantially above 1000 \μg/mL. Non-biased GC-MS headspace\ analysis of the methanolic extracti dentified a high diversity of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoid. Conclusion: The lack of toxicity and the inhibitory activity of the methanolic myrrh extract against microbial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis indicates its potential in the treatment and prevention of these diseases.

}, keywords = {ankylosing spondylitis, Commiphora molmol, Monoterpenoid, Multiple sclerosis., Myrrh, rheumatoid arthritis, Sesquiterpenoid, Terpenoid}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.3.4}, author = {Isaac Biggs and Joseph Sirdaarta and Alan White and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {130, title = {Growth Inhibitory Activity of Kakadu Plum Extracts Against the Opportunistic Pathogenclostridium Perfringens: New Leads in the Prevention and Treatment of Clostridial Myonecrosis}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {December 2015}, pages = {144-153}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {144}, abstract = {

Introduction: Clostridium perfringens is the etiological agent of clostridial myonecrosis and enteritis necroticans. Infections result in exotoxin production, tissue necrosis and unless promptly treated, may result in death. Terminalia ferdinandiana (Kakadu plum) fruit has documented therapeutic properties as a general antiseptic agent. Fruit extracts have been reported to inhibit the growth of an extensive panel of pathogenic bacteria. Leaf extracts have also been shown to block the growth of several bacterial species associated with autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: T. ferdinandiana fruit and leaf solvent extracts were investigated for growth inhibitory activity by disc diffusion assay against a clinical strain of Clostridium perfringens. Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Active extracts were analysed by non-targeted HPLC-QTOF mass spectroscopy (with screening against 3 compound databases) for the identification and characterisation of individual components in the crude plant extracts. Results: Methanolic and aqueous T. ferdinandiana fruit and leaf extracts, as well as the leaf ethyl acetate extract, displayed growth inhibitory activity in the disc diffusion assay against C. perfringens. The leaf extracts were generally more potent growth inhibitors than the corresponding fruit extracts, although the aqueous fruit extract had substantially greater efficacy than the aqueous leaf extract. The methanolic and ethyl acetate leaf extracts were particularly potent growth inhibitors, with MIC values of 206 and 117 \μg/ml respectively. The fruit methanolic extract also displayed good efficacy, with an MIC of 716 \μg/ml. In contrast, the chloroform and hexane extracts of both fruit and leaf were completely devoid of growth inhibitory activity. All T. ferdinandiana extracts were either nontoxic or of low toxicity in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay. Non-biased phytochemical analysis of the methanolic and ethyl acetate leaf extracts revealed the presence of high relative levels of a diversity of galloand ellagi- tannins. Conclusion: The low toxicity of the T. ferdinandiana extracts and the potent growth inhibitory bioactivity of the leaf methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts against C. perfringens indicates their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of clostridial myonecrosis and enteritis necroticans. Metabolomic profiling studies indicate that these extracts contained a diversity of tannins.

}, keywords = {Antibacterial extracts, Antioxidant, Australian medicinal plants, Enteritis necroticans, Gas gangrene., Kakadu plum, Myonecrosis, Terminalia ferdinandiana}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.2.8}, author = {Mitchell Henry Wright and Joseph Sirdaarta and Ben Matthews and Anthony Carlson Greene and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {150, title = {Phytochemical Analysis of Tasmannia lanceolata Extracts and Inhibition of Giardia duodenalis Proliferation}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {Jan/2016}, pages = {291-299}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {291}, abstract = {

Background: Giardiasis is a debilitating disease caused by gastrointestinal parasites of the genus Giardia. Tasmannia lanceolata (Tasmanian pepper berry) has a high anti-oxidant capacity and has documented therapeutic properties for a variety of pathogenic diseases. Materials and methods: Solvent extracts of T. lanceolata berry and leaf were investigated for the ability to block G. duodenalis growth. The IC50 values of the extracts which displayed inhibitory activity were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Active extracts were analysed by non-targeted HPLC-QTOF mass spectroscopy (with screening against 3 compound databases) for the identification and characterisation of individual components in crude plant extracts. Results: Methanolic, aqueous and ethyl acetate T. lanceolata berry and leaf extracts displayed potent G. duodenalis growth inhibitory activity. The methanolic extracts were the most potent growth inhibitors with IC50 values of approximately 180 \µg/ml and 420 \µg/ml for the berry and leaf methanolic extracts respectively. The aqueous, ethyl acetate, chloroform and hexane extracts also inhibited G. duodenalis growth, albeit with lower potency. HPLC-QTOF mass spectroscopy analysis of the extracts identified 45 compounds which were present in all T. lanceolata berry extracts. Forty of these were putatively identified by screening against 3 compound databases. All T. lanceolata berry and leafextracts were nontoxic in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay. Conclusion: The low toxicity of the T. lanceolata extracts and their potent G. duodenalis growth inhibitory bioactivity indicates their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of this disease.

}, keywords = {Alternative therapies, Anti-Giardial activity, Anti-oxidant, Complementary, Gastrointestinal parasite, Giardisis, Tasmanian pepper.}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.3.19}, author = {Paran Rayan and Ben Matthews and Pauline Mc Donnell and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {148, title = {The Therapeutic Properties of Juniperus Communis L.: Antioxidant Capacity, Bacterial growth Inhibition, Anticancer Activity and Toxicity}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {Jan/2016}, pages = {273-280}, type = {Orginal Article}, chapter = {273}, abstract = {

Introduction: J. Communi sberry is a high antioxidant fruit which is used in several traditional medicinal systems to treat a variety of diseases including rheumatism, arthritis and gout.This study was undertaken to examine the inhibitory activity of J. communis berry extracts on the growth of several bacteria associated with autoimmune inflammatory disease, and to test their ability to block CaCo2 and HeLa cancer cell proliferation. Methods: J. Communis solvent extracts were preparedusing solvents of varying polarity. The extracts were investigated by disc diffusion assay for the ability to inhibit the growth of a panel of pathogenic bacteria associated with autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Inhibitory activity against CaCo2 and HeLa human carcinoma cell lines was evaluated using an MTS colorimetric cell proliferation assay. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Results: The methanol, water and ethyl acetate J. communis berry extracts displayed moderate to potent growth inhibitory activity against bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis. The methanol and water extracts displayed the broadest specificity, inhibiting the growth of all bacteria tested. The ethyl acetate extract also displayed antibacterial activity, inhibiting the growth of 9 of the 13 bacterial strains (69\%). The ethyl acetate extract displayed the greatest potency, with MIC values substantially below 2000 \µg/mL for all bacteria which it inhibited. It was most effective at inhibiting the growth of P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris and S. aureus, each with MIC\’s \≤ 500 \µg/mL. The methanol and water extracts also proved effective at blocking the proliferation of the colorectal cancer cell line CaCo2 and HeLa cervical cancer cell growth, with IC50 values in the 1300-2500 \µg/mL range. All extracts were non-toxic in the Artemia nauplii bioassay. Conclusion: The lack of toxicity of the J. Communis berry extracts and their potent growth inhibitory bioactivity against bacteria and HeLa and CaCo2 carcinoma cells indicates their potential in the treatment and prevention of selected autoimmune inflammatory diseases and some cancers.

}, keywords = {Anti-bacterial activity, Antioxidant., Artemia, Autoimmune inflammatory disease, CaCo2, HeLa, Juniper berry, Traditional medicine}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.3.17}, author = {Alejandra Fernandez and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {88, title = {Inhibition of Bacillus anthracis growth by Australian native plants used traditionally as antibacterial medicines}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {7}, year = {2015}, month = {01/2015}, pages = {389-396}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {389}, abstract = {

Introduction: Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It is often fatal if left untreated. Many Australian plants have documented therapeutic properties as general antiseptics, inhibiting the growth of a wide variety of bacterial species. This study examines the ability of selected Australian plant extracts to inhibit B. anthracis growth. Methods: Solvent extracts were prepared using plants with documented ethnobotanical usage to treat bacterial infections, or published antibacterial activity. The extracts were investigated by disc diffusion assay for the ability to inhibit the growth of an environmental strain of B. anthracis. Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Results: Methanolic and aqueous extracts of Eucalyptus baileyana and Eucalyptus major displayed potent antibacterial activity in the disc diffusion assay against B. anthracis. The methanolic extracts were particularly potent with MIC values as low as 290 \μg/mL (E. major methanolic extract). Tasmannia insipidia and Tasmannia stipitata extracts also inhibited B. anthracis growth, albeit with low efficacy. The E. baileyana and E. major methanolic leaf extracts as well as the E. baileyana aqueous leaf extract induced significant mortality in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay, with LC50 values substantially \<1000 \μg/mL, indicating the toxicity of these extracts. Conclusion: The potent inhibitory bioactivity of the E. baileyana and E. major extracts against B. anthracis demonstrate their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of anthrax. However, their toxicity indicates that their use may be limited to the treatment of the cutaneous form of the disease, or for sterilisation of infected sites.

}, keywords = {Anthrax, Antibacterial activity, Bacillus anthracis, Eucalyptus, Scaevola spinescens, Tasmannia stipitata, Traditional medicine., Zoonotic}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2015.6.13}, author = {Mitchell Henry Wright and Anthony Carlson Greene and Ian Edwin Cock} }